La decisión directiva de formación de alianzas estratégicas: propuesta de un modelo explicativo desde la perspectiva cognitiva
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51302/rtss.2003.8665Palabras clave:
cooperación empresarial, formación del acuerdo, procesos de toma de decisiones estratégicas, capacidades directivas, perspectiva cognitiva, heurísticos, sesgos cognitivosResumen
El fracaso de muchos acuerdos de cooperación se ha atribuido a un inadecuado proceso en las fases iniciales, donde directivos inteligentes y experimentados pasan por alto ciertas cuestiones aparentemente lógicas. El objeto de este trabajo es ofrecer una respuesta a la cuestión de cómo se desarrolla el proceso intraorganizativo de toma de decisiones en las fases iniciales de la formación del acuerdo de cooperación empresarial. Con tal fin presentamos un modelo explicativo de la decisión directiva de formación de la alianza estratégica donde una serie de heurísticos y sesgos cognitivos juegan un papel central. En relación con esta idea, hay un gran cuerpo de evidencia que sugiere que determinados procesos cognitivos conducen a errores sistemáticos y severos. Nosotros, como otros investigadores, estamos convencidos de que comprender y ser conscientes de cómo funcionan esos determinados procesos cognitivos, y qué factores organizativos y del entorno inciden sobre ellos, son los primeros pasos para mejorar la gestión. Consecuentemente, este trabajo puede ser entendido como una herramienta directiva cuya mejor contribución esperamos que sea su utilidad para la gestión en el contexto de la formación de un acuerdo de cooperación empresarial.
Agencias de apoyo
Este trabajo se enmarca dentro del proyecto de investigación que lleva por título «Análisis explicativo de la cooperación interempresas: propuesta de unos modelos para su evaluación y su management» (SEC98-0948), financiado por la Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología (CICYT)
Descargas
Citas
Amason, A. C. (1996): «Distinguishing the Effects of Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict on Strategic Decision Making: Resolving a Paradox for Top Management Teams», Academy of Management Journal, 39 (1), 123-148.
Ashmos, D. P.; Duchon, D. y McDaniel, R. R. (1998): «Participation in Strategic Decision Making: The Role of Organizational Predisposition and Issue Interpretation», Decision Sciences, 29 (1), 25-51.
Barr, P. S.; Bogner, W.; Golden-Biddle, K.; Rao, H. y Thomas, H. (1997): «Cognitive Processes in Alliance: Birth, Maturity and (Possible) Death», en H. Thomas, D. O'Neal y M. Ghertman (Eds.): Strategy, Structure and Style, Wiley & Sons, New York.
Barroso, C. y Martín, E. (2000): «Desarrollo del márketing relacional en España», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 9 (3), 25-46.
Beamish, P. W. (1994): «Joint Ventures in LDCs: Partner Selection and Performance», Management International Review, 34, Special Issue, 60-74.
Berger, P. L. y Luckmann, T. (1967): The Social Construction of Reality, Anchor Books, New York.
Borys, B. y Jemison, D. (1989): «Hybrid Arrangements as Strategic Alliances: Theoretical Issues in Organizational Combinations», Academy of Management Review, 14 (2), 234-249.
Bougon, M. G. (1992): «Congregate Cognitive Maps: A Unified Dynamic Theory of Organization and Strategy», Journal of Management Studies, 29 (3), 369-389.
Brockhaus, R. H. (1980): «Risk-taking Propensity of Entrepreneurs», Academy of Management Journal, 23 (3), 509-520.
Buckley, P. J. y Casson, M. (1988): «A Theory of Cooperation in International Business», en F. J. Contractor y P. Lorange (Eds.): Cooperative Strategies in International Business, Lexington Books, New York.
Bukszar, E. (1999): «Strategic Bias: The Impact of Cognitive Biases on Strategy», Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 16 (2): 105-117.
Burke, L. A. y Miller, M. K. (1999): «Taking the Mystery out of Intuitive Decision Making», Academy of Management Executive, 13 (4), 91-99.
Burke, L. A. y Steensma, H. K. (1998): «Toward A Model For Relating Executive Career Experiences And Firm Performance», Journal of Managerial Issues, 10 (1), 86-102.
Busenitz, L. W. (1999): «Entrepreneurial Risk and Strategic Decision Making. It’s a Matter of Perspective», Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 35 (3), September, 325-340.
Busenitz, L. W. y Barney, J. B. (1997): «Differences between Entrepreneurs and Managers in Large Organizations: Biases and Heuristics in Strategic Decision-Making», Journal of Business Venturing, 12 (1), 9-30.
Camarero, M. C. y Gutiérrez, J. (2000): «Propuesta de un modelo explicativo de las relaciones comerciales a largo plazo entre empresas», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 9 (3), 89-112.
Child, J. (1997): «Strategic Choice in the Analysis of Action, Structure, Organizations and Environment: Retrospect and Prospect», Organization Studies, 18 (1), 43-76.
Clapham, S. E. y Schwenk, C. R. (1991): «Self-Serving Attributions, Managerial Cognition, and Company Performance», Strategic Management Journal, 12, 219-229.
Condon, J. W. y Crano, W. D. (1988): «Inferred evaluation and the relation between attitude and interpersonal attraction», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (5), 789-797.
Cooper, A. C. y Kendall, A. W. (1995): «Determinants of Satisfaction for Entrepreneurs», Journal of Business Venturing, 10 (6), 439-457.
Cooper, A. C.; Woo, C. Y. y Dunkelberg, W. C. (1988): «Entrepreneurs’ Perceived Chance of Success», Journal of Business Venturing, 3 (2), 97-108.
Corner, P. D.; Kinicki, A. J. y Keats, B. W. (1994): «Integrating Organizational and Individual Information Processing Perspectives on Choice», Organization Science, 5 (3), 294-308.
Cosier, R. A. y Schwenk, C. R. (1990): «Agreement and Thinking Alike: Ingredients for Poor Decisions», Academy of Management Executive, 4 (1), 69-74.
Cossette, P. (1998): «The Study of Language in Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Stance», Human Relations, 51 (11), 1.355-1.377.
Cowan, D. A. (1986): «Developing a Process Model of Problem Recognition», Academy of Management Review, 11 (4), 763-776.
Cyert, R. M. y March, J. G. (1963): A Behavioural Theory of the Firm, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Daft, R. L. y Weick, K. E. (1984): «Toward a Model of Organizations as Interpretation Systems», Academy of Management Review, 9 (2), 284-295.
Das, T. K. y Teng, B.-S. (1997): «Time and Entrepreneurial Risk Behavior», Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 22 (2), Winter, 69-88.
Das, T. K. y Teng, B.-S. (1999a): «Managing risks in strategic alliances», Academy of Management Executive, 13 (4), November, 50-62.
Das, T. K. y Teng, B.-S. (1999b): «Cognitive Biases and Strategic Decision Processes: An Integrative Perspective», Journal of Management Studies, 36 (6), 757-778.
Dean, J. W. y Sharfman, M. P. (1993): «Procedural Rationality in the Strategic Decision-Making Process», Journal of Management Studies, 30 (4), 587-610.
Dean, J. W. y Sharfman, M. P. (1996): «Does Decision Process Matter? A Study of Strategic Decision-Making Effectiveness», Academy of Management Journal, 39 (2), 368-396.
DiMaggio, P. J. y Powell, W. W. (1983): «The iron cage revisited: institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields», American Sociological Review, 48, 147-160.
Doz, Y. L. (1996): «The Evolution of Cooperation in Strategic Alliances: Initial Conditions or Learning Processes?», Strategic Management Journal, 17, 55-83.
Duhaime, I. M. y Schwenk, C. R. (1985): «Conjectures on Cognitive Simplification in Acquisition and Divestment Decision Making», Academy of Management Review, 10 (2), 287-295.
Dutton, J. E. (1993): «Interpretations on Automatic: A Different View of Strategic Issue Diagnosis» Journal of Management Studies, 30 (3), 339-357.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989): «Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments», Academy of Management Journal, 32 (3), 543-576.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1990): «Speed and Strategic Choice: How Managers Accelerate Decision Making», California Management Review, Spring, 39-54.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1999): «Strategy as Strategic Decision Making», Sloan Management Review, Spring, 65-72.
Eisenhardt, K. M.; Kahwajy, J. L. y Bourgeois III, L. J. (1997): «Conflict and Strategic Choice: How Top Management Teams Disagree», California Management Review, 39 (2), Winter, 42-62.
Eisenhardt, K. M. y Zbaracki, M. J. (1992): «Strategic Decision Making», Strategic Management Journal, 13, 17-37.
Festinger, L. (1957): A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Fredrickson, J. W. (1983): «Strategic Process Research: Questions and Recommendations», Academy of Management Review, 8 (4), 565-575.
Fredrickson, J. W. y Iaquinto, A. L. (1989): «Inertia and Creeping Rationality in Strategic Decision Processes», Academy of Management Journal, 32 (3), 516-542.
Fredrickson, J. W. y Mitchell, T. R. (1984): «Strategic Decision Processes: Comprehensiveness and Performance in an Industry with an Unstable Environment», Academy of Management Journal, 27 (2), 399-423.
García-Canal, E. y Valdés-LLaneza, A. (2000): «Influencia de las condiciones iniciales en el rendimiento de las empresas conjuntas: teoría y evidencias», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, 5, 25-49.
Geringer, J. M. (1991): «Strategic Determinants of Partner Selection Criteria in International Joint Ventures», Journal of International Business Studies, First Quarter, 41-62.
Geringer, J. M. y Hébert, L. (1989): «Control and Performance of International Joint Ventures», Journal of International Business Studies, Summer, 235-254.
Ginsberg, A. (1990): «Connecting Diversification to Performance: A Sociocognitive Approach», Academy of Management Review, 15 (3), 514-535.
Gioia, D. A. (1986a): «Symbols, Scripts, and Sensemaking: Creating Meaning in the Organizational Experience», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Gioia, D. A. (1986b): «Conclusion: The State of the Art in Organizational Social Cognition: A Personal View», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Gioia, D. A. y Sims, H. P. (1986): «Introduction: Social Cognition in Organizations», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Gomes-Casseres, B. (1987): «Joint Venture Instability: Is It A Problem?», Columbia Journal of World Business, Summer, 97-102.
Grandori, A. y Soda, G. (1995): «Inter-firm Networks: Antecedents, Mechanisms and Forms», Organization Studies, 16 (2), 183-214.
Gulati, R. (1995a): «Does Familiarity Breed Trust? The Implications of Repeated Ties for Contractual Choice in Alliances», Academy of Management Journal, 38 (1), 85-112.
Gulati, R. (1995b): «Social Structure and Alliance Formation Patterns: A Longitudinal Analysis», Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 619-652.
Hagedoorn, J. (1993): «Understanding the Rationale of Strategic Technology Partnering: Interorganizational Modes of Cooperation and Sectoral Differences», Strategic Management Journal, 14, 371-385.
Håkanson, L. (1993): «Managing cooperative research and development: partner selection and contract design», R&D Management, 23 (4), 273-285.
Hambrick, D. C. y Mason, P. A. (1984): «Upper Echelons: The Organization as a Reflection of Its Top Managers», Academy of Management Review, 9 (2), 193-206.
Hamel, G. (1991): «Competition for Competence and Inter-Partner Learning within International Strategic Alliances», Strategic Management Journal, 12, 83-103.
Hannan, M. y Freeman, J. H. (1977): «The Population Ecology of Organizations», American Journal of Sociology, 82, 929-964.
Harrigan, K. R. (1988): «Strategic Alliances and Partner Asymmetries» en F. J. Contractor y P. Lorange (Eds.): Cooperative Strategies in International Business, Lexington Books, New York.
Huff, A. S. (1990b): «Mapping Strategic Thought», en A. S. Huff (Ed.): Mapping Strategic Thought, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Human, S. E. y Provan, K. G. (1997): «An Emergent Theory of Structure and Outcomes in Small-Firm Strategic Manufacturing Networks», Academy of Management Journal, 40 (2), 368-403.
Isenberg, D. J. (1986): «The Structure and Processes of Understanding: Implications for Managerial Action», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Janis, I. L. y Mann, L. (1977): Decision-Making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment, The Free Press, New York.
Jehn, K. A. (1995): «A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict», Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256-282.
Jehn, K. A. (1997): «A Qualitative Analysis of Conflict Types and Dimensions in Organizational Groups», Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 530-557.
Jehn, K. A.; Chadwick, C. y Thatcher, S. M. B. (1997): «To Agree or Not to Agree: The Effects of Value Congruence, Individual Demographic Dissimilarity, and Conflict on Workgroup Outcomes», International Journal of Conflict Management, 8 (4), 287-305.
Jehn, K. A.; Northcraft, G. B. y Neale, M. A. (1999): «Why Differences Make a Difference: A Field Study of Diversity, Conflict, and Performance in Workgroups», Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
Jemison, D. B. y Sitkin, S. B. (1986): «Corporate Acquisitions: A Process Perspective», Academy of Management Review, 11 (1), 145-163.
Jones, R. E.; Jacobs, L. W. y Van't Spijker, W. (1992): «Strategic Decision Processes in International Firms», Management International Review, 32 (3), 219-236.
Kahneman, D. y Lovallo, D. (1993): «Timid Choices and Bold Forecasts: A Cognitive Perspective on Risk Taking», Management Science, 39 (1), January, 17-31.
Kahneman, D. y Tversky, A. (1984): «Choices, Values, and Frames», American Psychologist, 39 (4), April, 341-350.
Khatri, N. y Ng, H. A. (2000): «The Role of Intuition in Strategic Decision Making», Human Relations, 53 (1), 57-86.
Kiesler, S. y Sproull, L. (1982): «Managerial Response to Changing Environments: Perspectives on Problem Sensing from Social Cognition», Administrative Science Quarterly, 27, 548-570.
Krueger, N. y Dickson, P. R. (1994): «How Believing in Ourselves Increases Risk Taking: Perceived Self-Efficacy and Opportunity Recognition», Decision Sciences, 23 (3), 385-400.
Kunreuther, H. (1990): «Discussion», en R. M. Hogart (Ed.): Insights in Decision Making: A Tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Lado, A. A. y Kedia, B. L. (1992): «Determinantes en la elección estratégica de lo individual frente a la alianza: Un marco integrador», Economía Industrial, 283, Enero-Febrero, 49-60.
Lane, P. J. y Lubatkin, M. (1998): «Relative Absorptive Capacity and Interorganizational Learning», Strategic Management Journal, 19, 461-477.
Langer, E. J. (1975): «The Illusion of Control», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (2), 311-328.
Langer, E. J. (1994): «The Illusion of Calculated Decisions», en R. C. Schank y E. J. Langer (Eds.): Beliefs, Reasoning, and Decision Making. Psycho-Logic in Honor of Bob Abelson, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey.
Lant, T. K.; Milliken, F. J. y Batra, B. (1992): «The Role of Managerial Learning and Interpretation in Strategic Persistence and Reorientation: An Empirical Exploration», Strategic Management Journal, 13, 585-608.
Levinthal, D. A. y March, J. G. (1993): «The Myopia of Learning», Strategic Management Journal, 14, 95-112.
Levitt, B. y March, J. G. (1988): «Organizational Learning», Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 319-340.
Lord, G. L. y Foti, R. J. (1986): «Schema Theories, Information Processing, and Organizational Behavior», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Lyles, M. (1987): «Common Mistakes of Joint Venture Experienced Firms», Columbia Journal of World Business, Summer, 79-85.
MacCrimmon, K. R. (1990): «Discussion», en R. M. Hogart (Ed.): Insights in Decision Making: A Tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
MacCrimmon, K. R. y Wehrung, D. A. (1990): «Characteristics of Risk Taking Executives», Management Science, 36 (4), April, 422-435.
Makridakis, S. G. (1990): Forecasting, Planning and Strategy for the 21st Century, The Free Press, New York.
March, J. G. (1991): «Exploration and Exploitation in Organizational Learning», Organization Science, 2 (1), 71-87.
March, J. G. y Shapira, Z. (1987): «Managerial Perspectives on Risk and Risk Taking», Management Science, 33 (11), November, 1.404-1.418.
Meyer, J. W. y Rowan, B. (1977): «Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony», American Journal of Sociology, 83, 340-363.
Miller, C. C.; Burke, L. M. y Glick, W. H. (1998): «Cognitive Diversity among Upper-Echelon Executives: Implications for Strategic Decision Processes», Strategic Management Journal, 19, 39-58.
Milliken, F. J. (1987): «Three Types of Perceived Uncertainty About the Environment: State, Effect, and Response Uncertainty», Academy of Management Review, 12 (1), 133-143.
Murrell, A. J.; Stewart, A. C. y Engel, B. T. (1993): «Consensus Versus Devil’s Advocacy: The Influence of Decision Process and Task Structure on Strategic Decision Making», Journal of Business Communication, 30 (4), 399-414.
Nisbett, R. y Ross, L. (1980): Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
Nooteboom, B.; Berger, H. y Noorderhaven, N. G. (1997): «Effects of Trust and Governance on Relational Risk», Academy of Management Journal, 40 (2), 308-338.
Norburn, D. y Birley, S. (1988): «The Top Management Team and Corporate Performance», Strategic Management Journal, 9, 225-237.
Nutt, P. C. (1993): «Flexible Decision Styles and the Choices of Top Executives», Journal of Management Studies, 30 (5), 695-721.
Oliver, C. (1997): «Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Combining Institutional and Resource-Based Views», Strategic Management Journal, 18 (9), 697-713.
Osborn, R. N. y Hagedoorn, J. (1997): «The Institutionalization and Evolutionary Dynamics of Interorganizational Alliances and Networks», Academy of Management Journal, 40 (2), 261-278.
Palich, L. E. y Bagby, D. R. (1995): «Using Cognitive Theory to Explain Entrepreneurial Risk-taking: Challenging Conventional Wisdom», Journal of Business Venturing, 10 (6), 425-438.
Park, O. S.; Sims, H. P. y Motowidlo, S. J. (1986): «Affect in Organizations. How Feelings and Emotions Influence Managerial Judgment», en H. P. Sims, D. A. Gioia y asociados: The Thinking Organization, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Parkhe, A. (1991): «Interfirm Diversity, Organizational Learning, and Longevity in Global Strategic Alliances», Journal of International Business Studies, Fourth Quarter, 579-601.
Parkhe, A. (1993a): «Strategic Alliance Structuring: A Game Theoretic and Transaction Cost Examination of Interfirm Cooperation», Academy of Management Journal, 36 (4), 794-829.
Parkhe, A. (1993b): «Partner Nationality and the Structure-Performance Relationship in Strategic Alliances», Organization Science, 4 (2), 301-324.
Pfeffer, J. y Salancik, G. R. (1978): The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective, Harper & Row, New York.
Pondy, L. R. (1983): «Union of Rationality and Intuition in Management Action», en S. Srivastva y asociados: The Executive Mind, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Priem, R. L. y Price, K. H. (1991): «Process and Outcome Expectations for the Dialectical Inquiry, Devil's Advocacy, and Consensus Techniques of Strategic Decision Making», Group & Organization Studies, 16 (2), 206-225.
Rabin, M. y Schrag, J. L. (1999): «First Impressions Matter: A Model of Confirmatory Bias», The Quarterly Journal of Economics, February, 37-82.
Ring, P. S. (2000a): Relying on Trust in Strategic Alliances: A Co-evolutionary View, Jornada sobre Alianzas Estratégicas y Cooperación Empresarial, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid.
Ring, P. S. (2000b): Relying on Trust in Strategic Alliances: A Co-evolutionary Perspective, Jornada sobre Alianzas Estratégicas y Cooperación Empresarial, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid.
Ring, P. S. (2000c): The Three T’s of Alliance Creation: Task, Team and Time, Jornada sobre Alianzas Estratégicas y Cooperación Empresarial, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid.
Ring, P. S. y Van de Ven, A. H. (1992): «Structuring Cooperative Relationships between Organizations», Strategic Management Journal, 13, 483-598.
Ring, P. S. y Van de Ven, A. H. (1994): «Developmental Processes of Cooperative Interorganizational Relationships», Academy of Management Review, 19 (1), 90-118.
Russo, J. E. y Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1992): «Managing Overconfidence», Sloan Management Review, Winter, 7-17.
Saxton, T. (1997): «The Effects of Partner and Relationship Characteristics on Alliance Outcomes», Academy of Management Journal, 40 (2), 443-461.
Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1990): «Strategy, Complexity and Economic Rent», Management Science, 36 (10), October, 1.178-1.192.
Schweiger, D. M.; Sandberg, W. R. y Rechner, P. L. (1989): «Experiential Effects of Dialectical Inquiry, Devil’s Advocacy, and Consensus Approaches to Strategic Decision Making», Academy of Management Journal, 32 (4), 745-772.
Schwenk, C. R. (1984): «Cognitive Simplification Processes in Strategic Decision-making», Strategic Management Journal, 5, 111-128.
Schwenk, C. R. (1988): «The Cognitive Perspective on Strategic Decision Making», Journal of Management Studies, 25 (1), 41-55.
Schwenk, C. R. (1994): «Commentary», en P. Shrivastava, A. Huff y J. Dutton (Eds.): Advances in Strategic Management, 10B, JAI Press, Connecticut.
Scott, R. (1987): «The adolescence of institutional theory», Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 493-511.
Shaver, K. G. y Scott, L. R. (1991): «Person, Process, Choice: The Psychology of New Venture Creation», Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 16 (2), Winter, 23-45.
Simon, H. A. (1957): Administrative Behaviour (2nd Edn.), Macmillan, New York.
Simon, H. A. (1978): «Rationality as process and as product of thought», The American Economic Review, 68 (2), 1-16.
Simon, H. A. (1983): Reason and Human Affairs, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Simon, H. A. (1987): «Making Management Decisions: the Role of Intuition and Emotion», Academy of Management Executive, February, 57-64.
Simon, M.; Houghton, S. M. y Aquino, K. (1999): «Cognitive Biases, Risk Perception, and Venture Formation: How Individuals Decide to Start Companies», Journal of Business Venturing, 15 (2), 113-134.
Sitkin, S. B. y Pablo, A. L. (1992): «Reconceptualizing the Determinants of Risk Behavior», Academy of Management Review, 17 (1), 9-38.
Sitkin, S. B. y Weingart, L. R. (1995): «Determinants of Risky Decision-Making Behavior: A Test of the Mediating Role of Risk Perceptions and Propensity», Academy of Management Journal, 38 (6), 1.573-1.592.
Slovic, P.; Griffin, D. y Tversky, A. (1990): «Compatibility Effects in Judgment and Choice», en R. M. Hogart (Ed.): Insights in Decision Making: A Tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Starbuck, W. H. y Milliken, F. J. (1988): «Executives Perceptual Filters: What They Notice and How They Make Sense», en D. C. Hambrick (Ed.): The Executive Effect: Concepts and Methods for Studying Top Managers, JAI Press, Connecticut.
Tallman, S. B. y Shenkar, O. (1994): «A Managerial Decision Model of International Cooperative Venture Formation», Journal of International Business Studies, First Quarter, 91-113.
Tversky, A. y Kahneman, D. (1974): «Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases», Science, 185 (27), September, 1.124-1.131.
Tversky, A.; Slovic, P. y Kahneman, D. (1990): «The Causes of Preference Reversal», The American Economic Review, 80 (1), March, 204-217.
Urra, J. A. (2001): Procesos de Decisión en la Formación de Acuerdos de Cooperación Empresarial: Propuesta de un Modelo Explicativo desde la Perspectiva Cognitiva, Tesis Doctoral, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia.
Urra, J. A. y Escribá, A. (2002): «Propuesta de un Marco Conceptual Integrador para el Análisis de la Cooperación Interempresarial desde la Perspectiva del Conocimiento», Revista de Contabilidad y Tributación (Comentarios y Casos Prácticos). Ed. Estudios Financieros, núm. 230, mayo 2002.
Wallsten, T. S. (1990): «The Costs and Benefits of Vague Information», en R. M. Hogart (Ed.): Insights in Decision Making: A Tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Weick, K. E. (1979a): The Social Psychology of Organizing, Second Edition, Random House, New York.
Weick, K. E. (1979b): «Cognitive Processes in Organizations», en B. Staw (Ed.): Research in Organizational Behavior, 1, JAI Press, Connecticut.
Weick, K. E. (1990): «Introduction: Cartographic Myths in Organizations», en A. S. Huff (Ed.): Mapping Strategic Thought, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
Wiersema, M. F. y Bantel, K. A. (1992): «Top Management Team Demography and Corporate Strategic Change», Academy of Management Journal, 35 (1), 91-121.
Zajac, E. J. y Bazerman, M. H. (1991): «Blind Spots in Industry and Competitor Analysis: Implications of Interfirm (Mis)Perceptions for Strategic Decisions», Academy of Management Review, 16 (1), 37-56.
Zucker, L. G. (1987): «Institutional theories of organization», Annual Review of Sociology, 13, 443-464.
