Organizational flexibility and human resources practices: influence on employee commitment
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51302/rtss.2012.3313Keywords:
organizational flexibility, employee commitment and high performance practicesAbstract
Companies need to be flexible to adapt to the competitive environment. The flexibility of the employee's behavior is an indicator of the flexibility of the company. The more flexible the management practices of human resources, the overall flexibility of the company will increase. Therefore, this paper is to determine whether high-performance practices supported by organizational variables that improve the flexibility of the company have a positive impact on employee commitment. We analise this relationship in companies that are highly valued by the Great Place to Work in terms of human resource practices. Through cluster analysis, we conclude the existence of two groups of companies: one in which companies use high-performance practices but are at an initial stage of implementation and achieving a high employee commitment although the organization is not too flexible, and a second group that conducted high-performance practices get better results in terms of commitment having a very flexible organizational structure.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, P. K.; Rafiq, M. y Saad, N. M. [2003]: «Internal marketing and the mediating role of organizational competencies», European Journal of Marketing, 37, n.º 9, págs. 1.221-1.241.
Appelbaum, E. y Batt, R. [1994]: The New American Workplace: Transforming Work Systems in the United States, Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Appelbaum, E.; Berg, P. y Kalleberg, A. L. [2000]: Manufacturing Advantage: Why High-Performance Work Systems Pay Off, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Argyris, C. y Schön, D. A. [1996]: Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley.
Arthur, J. B. [1994]: «Effects of human resource Systems on manufacturing performance and turnover», Academy of Management Journal, n.º 37, págs. 670-687.
Aselage, J. y Eisenberg, R. [2003]: Perceived organizational support and psychological contracts: A theoretical integration, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, págs. 491-509.
Atkinson, J. [1984]: The Flexible Firm and the Shape of Jobs to Come. (Labour Market Issues, 5), Oxford.
Bae, J. y Lawler, J. J. [2000]: «Organizational and HRM strategy in Korea: impact on firms performance in an emerging economy», Academy of Management Journal, 43, n.º 3, págs. 502-517.
Bahrami, H. [1992]: «The Emerging Flexible Organization: Perspectives from Silicon Valley», California Management Review, 34, pág. 33.
Baird, L. L. y Meshoulam, I. [1988]: «Managing two fits of strategic human resource management», Academy of Management Review, 13, n.º 1, págs. 116-128.
Batt, R. [2000]: «Strategic segmentation in front-line services: matching customers, employees and human resource systems», International Journal of Human Resource Management, 11, n.º 3, págs. 540-561.
Bayo, A. y Merino, J. [2001]: «Quality management and high performance work practices: do they coexist?», International Journal of Production Economics, 73, n.º 3, págs. 251-260.
Bayo Moriones, A. y Merino Díaz de Cerio, J. [2002]: «Las prácticas de recursos humanos de alto compromiso: un estudio de los factores que influyen sobre su adopción en la industria española», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, n.º 12, págs. 227-246.
Bayona, C.; Goñi, S. y Madorrán, C. [1999]: «Compromiso organizacional: implicaciones para la gestión estratégica de los recursos humanos», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, págs. 139-149.
Becker, B. y Gerhart [1996]: «The impact of human resource management on organizational performance: progress and prospects», Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, págs. 779-801.
Beltrán Martín, I.; Roca Puig, V.; Escrig Tena, A. y Bou Llusar, J. C. [2008]: «Human resource flexibility as a mediating variable between high performance work systems and performance», Journal of Management, 34, n.º 5, págs. 1.009-1.044.
Bhattacharya, M.; Gibson, D. y Dotty, D. [2005]: «The Effects of Flexibility in Employee Skills, Employee Behaviors, and Human Resource Practices on Firm Performance», Journal of Management, 31 (4), págs. 622-640.
Bishop, J. W.; Scott, K. D. y Burrougs, S. M. [2000]: «Support, commitment and employee outcomes in a team environment», Journal of Management, 26, págs. 1.113-1.132.
Blackburn, R. y Rosen, B. [1993]: «Total quality and human resources management: lessons learned from Baldrige Award-winning companies», Academy of Management Executive, 7 (3), págs. 49-66.
Blau, G. J. y Boal, K. R. [1987]: «Conceptualizing how job involvement and organizational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism», Academy of Management Review, 12, n.º 2, págs. 288-300.
Boxall, P. y Steeneveld, M. [1999]: «Human resource strategy and competitive advantage: a longitudinal study of engineering consultancies», Journal of Management Studies, vol. 36, n.º 4, págs. 443-463.
Bryson, A.; Forth, J. y Kirby, S. [2005]: «High-involvement management practices. Trade Union Representation and workplace performance in Britain», Scottish Journal of Political Economy, n.º 52, págs. 451-491.
Camisón, C. y Villar, A. [2010]: «Análisis del papel mediador de las capacidades de innovación tecnológica en la relación entre la forma organizativa flexible y el desempeño organizativo», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, 45, págs. 115-144.
Cappelli, P. y Crocker-Hefter, A. [1996]: «Distinctive human resources are firm's core competencies», Organizational Dynamics, 24 (3), págs. 7-22.
Capelli, P. y Neumark, D. [2001]: «Do high-performance work practices improve establishment level outcomes?», Industrial and Labour Relations Review, 54, n.º 4, págs. 737-775.
– [2001]: «External job churning and internal job flexibilitly», Unpusblished paper, Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.
Cardy, R. L. y Robbins, G. H. [1996]: «Human Resource Management in a Total Quality Organizational Environment: Shifting from a Traditional to a TQ HRM Approach», Journal of Quality Management, (11), págs. 5-20.
Castells, M. [1996]: The rise of the network society; The information age: Economy, society and culture, Blackwell, Malden MA.
Céspedes, J. J.; Jerez, P. y Valle, R. [2005]: «Las prácticas de Recursos Humanos de Alto Rendimiento y la capacidad de aprendizaje organizativo: incidencia e implicaciones», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, n.º 24, págs. 29-56.
Colclough, G. y Tolbert, C. M. [1992]: Work in the Fast Lane: Flexibility Divisions of Labor and Inequality in High-Tech Industries, Albany: SUNY.
Cotton, J. L. [1993]: Employee Involvement: Methods for Improving Performance and Work Attitudes, Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage.
Davis, K. y Nwestrom, J. [2000]: Comportamiento humano en el trabajo, México: McGraw-Hill.
Delaney, J. T. y Huselid, M. A. [1996]: «The impac of human resource management practices on perceptions of organizational performance», Academy of Management Journal, 39, págs. 949-69.
Delery, J. y Doty, H. [1996]: «Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management: test or universalistic, contingency and configurational performance predictions», Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, n.º 4, págs. 802-835.
Delery, J. E. [1998]: «Issues of fit in strategic human resource management: implications for research», Human Resource Management Review, vol. 8, págs. 289-309.
Deyo, F. C. [1997]: «Labor and post-fordist industrial restructuring in East and Southeast Asia», Work and Occupations, 24, págs. 97-118.
Eisenberger, R.; Fasolo, P. y Davis-Lamastro, V. [1990]: «Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation», Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 75, págs. 51-59.
Eisenberger, R.; Huntington, R.; Hutchison, S. y Sowa, D. [1986]: «Perceived organizational support», Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 71, págs. 500-507.
Englehardt, C. S. y Simmons, P. R. [2002]: «Organizational Flexibility for a Changing World», Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 23, págs. 113-122.
Evans, S. J. [1991]: «Strategic Flexibility for High Technology Manoeuvres: A Conceptual Framework», Journal of Management Studies, 28, págs. 69-89.
Evans, P. A. L. y Doz, Y. [1993]: «Dualities, a paradigm for human resource and organizational development in complex multinationals», en Pucik, V.; Tichy, N. M. y Barnett, C. K. (eds.), Globalizing management, Wiley, New York.
Ferris, G. R.; Hochwarter, W. A.; Buckley, M. R.; Harrell-Cook, G. y Frink, D. D. [1999]: «Human resources management: some new directions», Journal or Management, vol. 25, págs. 385-415.
Ford, J. D. [1979]: «Institutional versus questionnaire measures of organizational structure: A reexamination», Academy of Management Joumal, vol. 22, págs. 601-610.
González Álvarez, N. y Nieto Antolín, M. [2007]: «El papel de la ambigüedad causal como variable mediadora entre las prácticas de recursos humanos de alto compromiso y los resultados corporativos», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 16, n.º 4, págs. 107-126.
Great Place to Work [2010]: http://www.greatplacetowork.es/best/index.php
Guest, D. E. [1987]: «Human resource management and industrial relations», Journal of Management Studies, 24, n.º 5, págs. 503-521.
Guittleman, M.; Horrigan, M. y Joyce, M. [1998]: «"Flexible" workplace practices: evidence from a nationally representatiave survey», Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 52, págs. 99-113.
Guthrie, J. P. [2001]: «High-involvement work practices, turnover, and productivity: evidence from New Zealand», Academy of Management Journal, 44, n.º 1, págs. 180-190.
Guthrie, J. P.; Spell, C. S. y Nyamori, R. O. [2002]: «Correlates and consequences of high involvement work practices: the role of competitive strategy», International Journal of Human resource Management, 13, n.º 1, págs. 183-197.
Hage, J. y Aiken, M. [1967]: «Relationships of centralization to other structural properties», Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 69, págs. 32-40.
Hage, J. y Dewar, R. [1973]: «Elite Values versus Organizational Structure in Predicting Innovation», Administrative Science Quarterly, 18, págs. 279-290.
Hastings, C. [1993]: The new organization, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hunter, L.; McGregor, A.; MacInnes, J. y Sproull, A. [1993]: «The "flexible firm": strategy and segmentation», British Journal of Industrial Relations, 31, págs. 387-407.
Huselid, M. A. [1995]: «The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance», Academy of Management Journal, n.º 38, págs. 673-703.
Huselid, M. A. y Becker, B. E. [1996]: «Methodological Issues in cross-sectional and panel estimates of the human resource-firm performance link», Industrial Relations, 35, n.º 3, págs. 400-422.
Huselid, M. A.; Jackson, S. E. y Schuler, R. S. [1997]: «Technical and strategic human resource management effectiveness as determinants of firm performance», Academy of Management Journal, 40, n.º 1, págs. 171-188.
Ichniowski, C.; Kochan, T. A.; Levine, D.; Olson, C. y Strauss, G. [1996]: «What works at work: overview and assessment», Industrial Relations, vol. 35, págs. 352-332.
Ichniowski, C.; Shaw, K. y Prennushi, G. [1997]: «The effects of human resource management practices on productivity: Astudy of steel finishing lines», American Economic Review, 87, n.º 3, págs. 291-313.
Iles, P.; Forster, A. y Tinline, G. [1996]: «The changing relationships between work commitment, personal flexibility and employability: an evaluation of field experiment in executive development», Journal of Managerial Psychology, 42, págs. 727-786.
Jarillo, J. C. [1993]: Strategic networks; creating the borderless organization, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford.
Kamoche, K. [1996]: «Strategic human resource management within a resource-capability of the firm», Journal of Management Studies, 33, págs. 213-233.
Karuppan, C. [2004]: «Strategies to Foster Labor Flexibility», International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 53 (6), págs. 532-547.
Kerr, J. L. y Jackofsky, E. F. [1989]: «Aligning Managers With Strategies: Management Development versus Selection», Strategic Management Journal, 10, págs. 157-170.
Kim, L. [1998]: «Crisis construction and organizational learning: capability building in catching-up at Hunday Motor», Organization Science, 9 (4), págs. 506-521.
Kofman, F. y Senge, P. M. [1993]: «Communities of commitment: the heart of learning organizations», Organizational Dynamics, vol. 22, n.º 2, págs. 4-23.
Lawler, E. E. III [1988]: «Choosing an involvement strategy», Academy of Management Executive, 2, págs. 197-204.
– [1992]: The ultimate advantage: creating the high-involvement organization, San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Lee, J. y Miller, D. [1999]: «People matter: commitment to employees, strategy and performance in korean firms», Strategic Management Journal, vol. 20, págs. 579-593.
Lengnick-Hall, C. A. y Lengnick-Hall, M. L. [1988]: «Strategic human resource management: a review of the literature and a proposed typology», Academy of management Review, vol. 13, 3, págs. 454-470.
Leonard-Barton, D. [1992]: «The factory as a learning laboratory», Sloan Management Review, págs. 23-38.
Macduffie, J. [1995]: «Human resources bundles and manufacturing performance: organizational logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry», Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48: págs. 197-221.
Marchington, M. y Grugulis, I. [2000]: «Best practice human resource management: perfect opportunity or dangerous illusion?», The International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 11, n.º 6, págs. 1.104-1.121.
Martí Audí, N. [2008]: «High commitment human resource practices in spanish call centres. Nature, sources and effects on voluntay turnover», Tesis Doctoral, Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
Martínez, Á.; Vela, M. J. y Pérez, M. y De Luis, P. [2011]: «Innovación y flexibilidad de recursos humanos: el efecto moderador del dinamismo del entorno», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, vol. 20, núm. 1 (2011), págs. 41-68.
McGregor, D. [1960]: The human side of enterprise, New York: McGraw-Hill.
McNabb, R. y Whitfield, K. [1998]: «The Impact of Financial Participation and Employee Involvement on Financial Performanee», Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 45 (2) págs. 171-87.
Meyer, J. P. y Allen, N. J. [1997]: Commitment in the Workplace. Theory, research and application. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Milliam, J.; Von Glinow, M. y Natham, M. [1991]: «Organizational Life Cycles and Strategic International Human Resource Management in Multinational Companies: Implications for Congruence Theory», Academy of Management Review, 16 (2), págs. 318-339.
Mohr, R. D. y Zoghi, C. [2008]: «The high-involvement work design and job satisfaction», Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 61, n.º 3, págs. 275-296.
Nicholson, N.; Rees, A. y Brooks-Rooney, A. [1990]: «Strategy, Innovation and Performance», Journal of Management Studies, vol. 27, págs. 511-534.
Nohria, N. y Ghoshal, S. [1997]: The differentiated network. Organizing multinational corporations for value creation, San Francisco: Josey Bass.
Nonaka, I. y Takeuchi, H. [1995]: The knowledge-creating company, NY: Oxford University Press.
O'Dell, C. [1996]: «A current review of knowledge management best practice», Knowledge Management 96 Conference, Business intelligence, Londres.
Oakland, J. S. [2004]: Oakland and Quality Management, Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
OECD [1999]: Employment Outlook, Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Ordiz, M. [2002]: «Prácticas de alto rendimiento en recursos humanos: concepto y factores que motivan su adopción», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, vol. 12, págs. 247-265.
Ordiz Fuertes, M. y Fernández Sánchez, E. [2003]: «High-involvement practices in human resource management: concept and factors that motive their adoption», International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14, n.º 4, págs. 511-529.
Ordóñez, P. [2005]: «Gestión estratégica de recursos humanos, flexibilidad organizativa y encaje estratégico: Implicaciones para la competitividad empresarial», ICADE, Revista Cuatrimestral de las Facultades de Derecho y Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, n.º 65, págs. 31-74.
Osterman, P. [1994]: «How common os workplace transformation and who adopts it?», Industrial and Labor Relations Review, n.º 47, págs. 173-188.
– [2000]: «Work reorganization in an era of restructuring: trends in diffusion and effects on employee welfare», Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 53, págs. 179-96.
Pennings, J. [1973]: «Measures of organization structure: A methodological note», American Journal of Sociology, vol. 79, págs. 686-704.
Perrow, C. [1970]: Organizational analysis: A sociological view, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.
Pfeffer, J. [1994]: «Competitive advantage through people», California Management Review, 36, n.º 2, págs. 9-28.
– [1998]: La ecuación humana, Barcelona: Ediciones Gestión 2000.
Powell, I.; Montgomery, M. y Cosgrove, J. [1994]: «Compensation structure and establishment quit and fire rates», Industrial Relations, vol. 33, págs. 229-248.
Pugh, D. S.; Hickson, D. J.; Hinings, C. R. y Turner, C. [1968]: «Dimensions of organization structure», Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 13, págs. 65-105.
Rhoades, L. y Eisenberger, R. [2002]: Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 87, págs. 698-714.
Rhoades, L.; Eisenberger, R. y Armeli, S. [2001]: Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 86, págs. 825-836.
Richard, O. C. y Johnson, N. B. [2001]: «Strategic Human Resource Management Effectiveness and firm performance», The International Journal of Human resource Management, n.º 12, págs. 299-310.
Roca Puig, V.; Escrig Tena, A. B. y Bou Llusar, J. C. [2002]: «Compromiso con los empleados y estrategia competitiva: un análisis intersectorial de su repercusión en los resultados», Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, n.º 12, págs. 267-289.
Roche, W. K. [1999]: «In search of commitment-oriented human resource management practices and the conditions that sustain them», Journal of Management Studies, vol. 36, págs. 653-678.
Sánchez Quirós, I. [2002]: «Un análisis de las medidas de estructuras organizativas: estructura diseñada frente a estructura emergente», Cuadernos de Estudios Empresariales, vol. 12, págs. 271-291.
– [2004]: «The creation of employee commitment in Spanish hotels through cultural practices», Management Research, 2, n.º 2, págs. 175-192.
Sanz Valle, R. y Sabater Sánchez, R. [2002]: «Enfoque universalista de recursos humanos. Estudio empírico de sus efectos sobre los resultados de la empresa», Revista Europea de Dirección y Economía de la Empresa, 11, n.º 1, págs. 163-182.
Sashkin, M. [1984]: «Participative management is an ethical imperative», Organizational Dynamics, vol. 12, n.º 4, págs. 5-22.
Sathe, V. [1978]: «Institutional versus questionnaire measures of organizational structure», Academy of Management Joumal, vol. 21, págs. 227-238.
Schneider, B. y Bowen, D. E. [1993]: «The service organizations human resource management is crucial», Organizational Dynamics, vol. 21, n.º 4, págs. 39-52.
Schoemaker, M. [1998]: Organizeren van werk en contractrelaties; tussen slavernij en anarchie, Kluwer, Deventer.
– [2003]: «Identity in Flexible Organizations: Experiences in Dutch Organizations», Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 12, n.º 4, págs. 191-201.
Schuler, R. S. y Jackson, S. E. [1987a]: «Linking competitive strategy with human resource management practices», Academy of Management Executive, vol. 1 (3), págs. 207-219.
– [1987b]: «Organizational strategy and organization level as determinants of human resource management practices», Human Resource Planning, vol. 10 (3), págs. 125-141.
Shore, L. M. y Shore, T. H. [1995]: «Perceived organizational support and organizational justice», en Cropanzano, R. S. y Kacmar, K. M. (eds.), Organizational politics, justice, and support: Managing the social climate of the workplace, págs. 149-164, Westport, CT: Quorum.
Smith, V. [1994]: «New forms of work organization», Annual Review of Sociology, 23, págs. 315-329.
Snell, S. A.; Youndt, M. A. y Wright, P. M. [1996]: Establishing a Framework for Research in.
Snow, C. C. y Snell, S. A. [1993]: «Staffing as strategy», en N. Schimitt y W. Borman (eds.), Personnel selection in organizations, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, págs. 448-479.
«Strategic Human Resource Management: Merging Resource Theory and Organizacional Learning», en G. R. Ferris (ed.), Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, págs. 61-90.
Taylor, S.; Levy, O.; Boyacigiller, N. A. y Beechler, S. [2008]: «Employee commitment in MNCs: Impacts of organizational culture, HRM and top management orientations», The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, n.º 4, págs. 501-527.
Truss, C.; Gratton, L.; Hope-Hailey, V.; McGovern, P. y Stiles, P. [1997]: «Soft and hard models of human management: a reappraisal», Journal of Management Studies, vol. 34, págs. 53-73.
Tsai, Y. y Wu, S. [2006]: «Internal Marketing, Organizational Commitment and Service Quality», Service Systems and Service Management, 2, n.º 25/27, págs. 1.292-1.298.
Tsui, A. S.; Pearce, J. L.; Porter, L. W. y Hite, J. P. [1995]: «Choice of employee-organization relationship: influence of external and internal organizational factors», Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 13, págs. 117-51.
Tzafrir, S. S. [2005]: «The relationship between trust, HRM practices and firm performance», Internacional Journal of Human Resource Management, 16, n.º 9, págs. 1.600-1.622.
Ulrich, D. [1998]: «Intellectual capital = competente x commitment», Sloan-Management Journal, vol. 4, págs. 15-26.
Upton, D. [1995]: «What Really Makes Factories Flexible?», Harvard Business Review, 73 (4), págs. 74-84.
Valle, R.; Martín, F.; Romero, P. M. y Doland, S. L. [2000]: «Business strategy work processes and human resource training: are they congruence?», Journal of Organizational Behaviour, vol. 21, págs. 283-297.
Volberda, H. [1996]: Toward the Flexible Form: How to Remain Vital in Hypercompetitive Environments.
Volberda, H. W. [1997]: «Building flexible organizations for fast-moving markets», Long Range Planning, vol. 30, núm. 2, págs. 169-183.
– [1999]: Building the Flexible Firm, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walton, E. J. [1981]: «The comparison of measures or organization structure», Academy of Management Journal, vol. 6, págs. 155-160.
Walton, R. E. [1985]: «From control to commitment in the workplace», Harvard Business Review, 65, págs. 77-84.
Wang, D.; Tsui, A.; Zhang, Y. y Ma, L. [2003]: «Employment relationship and firm performance: evidence from an emerging economy», Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 24, págs. 511-535.
Williams, A. P. [2001]: «A belief-focused process model of organizational learning», Journal of Management Studies, 38 (1), págs. 67-85.
Wood, S. [1999]: «Human resource management and performance», International Journal of Management Reviews, 1, págs. 367-413.
Wood, S. y Albanase, M. T. [1995]: «Can we speak of a high commitment management on the shop floor?», Journal of Management Studies, vol. 32, págs. 215-247.
Wood, S. y De Menezes, L. M. [2008]: «Comparing perspectives on high involvement Management and organizational performance across the British economy», The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, n.º 4, págs. 639-682.
Word, S. [1999]: «Human resource management and performance», International Journal of Management Reviews, vol. 1, n.º 4, págs. 367-413.
Wright, P. M.; Smart, D. L. y McMahan, G. C. [1995]: «Matches between human resource and strategy among NCAA basketball teams», Academy of Management Journal, 38, págs. 1.052-1.074.
Wright, P. y Snell, S. [1998]: «Toward a Unifying Framework for Exploring Fit and Flexibility in Strategic Human Resource Management», Academy of Management Review, 23 (4), págs. 756-772.
Youndt, M. A.; Snell, S. A.; Dean, J. W. y Lepak, D. P. [1996]: «Human resource management, manufacturing strategy, and firm performance», Academy of Management Journal, vol. 39, págs. 836-866.
Zatzick, C. D. e Iverson, R. D. [2006]: «High-involvement management and workforce reduction: competitive advantage or disadvantage?», Academy of Management Journal, 49, n.º 5, págs. 999-1.015.