Del cristal al acero: nuevas barreras para nuevos tiempos
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51302/rtss.2018.1466Palabras clave:
mujeres directivas, igualdad, expatriadas, techo de cristal, acciones afirmativasResumen
Este trabajo ha obtenido un accésit en el Premio Estudios Financieros 2018 en la modalidad de Recursos Humanos.
En tiempos recientes asistimos a una proliferación de estudios relacionados con las desigualdades que las mujeres sufren en el desarrollo de su actividad laboral. Lejos del enfoque retrospectivo y marcadamente analítico de esos estudios, en este trabajo abordamos una perspectiva proactiva al sugerir la aparición de una nueva barrera para el avance de las mujeres en las organizaciones relacionada con su falta de experiencia internacional. Concretamente, destacamos que en el actual contexto de economía globalizada las capacidades globales del equipo de dirección resultan fundamentales para la expansión internacional de sus compañías, por lo que dichas capacidades son un elemento determinante a la hora de optar a puestos directivos de primer nivel. La forma más rápida de adquirirlas es la ocupación sucesiva de puestos en el extranjero, por lo que si las mujeres –como parece– no son asignadas a dichos puestos, tendrán menos oportunidades que sus compañeros para poder optar a puestos de alta dirección de empresas internacionales. Si a ello se añade que, en la actualidad, la estrategia de expansión internacional es muchas veces de supervivencia para las empresas, el panorama futuro de promoción para aquellas mujeres que deseen una trayectoria directiva de primer nivel se ensombrece. Proponemos, además, diversos escenarios de solución para intentar revertir esta tendencia y mejorar las oportunidades de progreso de las trabajadoras, con lo que, a la larga, se mejoran las de sus empresas.
Descargas
Citas
Adler, N. J. (1987). Pacific basin managers: a gaijin, not a woman. Human Resource Management, 26(2), 169-191.
Adler, N. (1994). Competitive frontiers: women managing across borders. Journal of Management Development, 13(2), 24-41.
Altman, Y. y Shortland, S. (2008). Women and international assignments: taking stock- a 25-year review. Human Resource Management, 47(2), 199-216.
Altman, Y. y Shortland, S. (2011). What do we really know about corporate career women expatriates? European Journal of International Management, 5(3), 209-234.
Andresen, M., Biemann, T. y Pattie, M. W. (2015). What makes them move abroad? Reviewing and exploring differences between self-initiated and assigned expatriation. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(7), 932-947.
Arfken, D. E., Bellar, S. L. y Helms, M. M. (2004). The ultimate glass ceiling revisited: the presence of women on corporate boards. Journal of Business Ethics, 50, 177-186.
BarNir, A., Watson, W. E. y Hutchins, H. M. (2011). Mediation and moderated mediation in the relationship among role models, self-efficacy, entrepreneurial career intention, and gender. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(2), 270-297.
Barreto, M. E., Ryan, M. K. y Schmitt, M. T. (2009). The glass ceiling in the 21st century: understanding barriers to gender equality. American Psychological Association.
Bendl, R. y Schmidt, A. (2010). From 'Glass Ceilings' to 'Firewalls' Different Metaphors for Describing Discrimination. Gender, Work & Organization, 17, 612-634.
Bird, A. y Mendenhall, M. E. (2016). From cross-cultural management to global leadership: evolution and adaptation. Journal of World Business, 51(1), 115-126.
Black, J. S. y Stephens, G. K. (1989). The influence of the spouse on expatriate adjustment and intent to stay in Pacific Rim overseas assignments. Journal of Management, 1, 529-545.
Boon van der, M. (2003). Women in International Management: An International Perspective on Women’s Ways of Leadership. Women in Management Review, 18(3/4), 132-146.
Bruckmüller, S., Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A. y Peters, K. (2013). Ceilings, Cliffs, and Labyrinths: Exploring Metaphors for Workplace Gender Discrimination. The SAGE handbook of gender and psychology, 450.
Byrne, D., Rasche, L. y Kelley, K. (1974). When «I like you» indicates disagreement an experimental differentiation of information and affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 8(3), 207-217.
Cabrer, B., Sancho, A. y Serrano, G. (2001). Microeconometría y decisión. Madrid: Pirámide.
Caligiuri, P. M. (2006). Developing global leaders. Human Resource Management Review, 16(2), 219-228.
Caligiuri, P. M. y Tarique, I. (2009). Predicting effectiveness in global leadership activities. Journal of World Business, 44, 336-346.
Caligiuri, P. M. y Tung, R. (1999). Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from a US based multinational company. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10, 763-782.
Calvo, N., Bastida, M. y Feás, J. (2016). Is Gender Equality a Reality after a Change in the Political Agenda?: Dynamic Analysis for Higher Management Levels. Handbook of Research on Race, Gender, and the Fight for Equality (pp. 539-558). IGI Global.
Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D. y Klesh, J. (1979). The Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Carli, L. L. y Eagly, A. H. (2016). Women face a labyrinth: an examination of metaphors for women leaders. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 31(8), 514-527.
Carpenter, M. A. y Fredrickson, J. W. (2001). Top management teams, global strategic posture and the moderating role of uncertainty. Academy of Management journal, 44(3), 533-545.
Cerdin, J. L. y Pargneux, M. L. (2009). Career and international assignment fit: toward an integrative model of success. Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management, 48(1), 5-25.
Chatterjee, S. y Hadi, A. S. (2009). Sensitivity analysis in linear regression (Vol. 327). John Wiley & Sons.
Chen, G., Gully, S. M. y Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational research methods, 4(1), 62-83.
Cole, N. y McNulty, Y. (2011). Why do female expatriates «fit-in» better than males? An analysis of self-transcendence and socio-cultural adjustment. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 18(2), 144-164.
Connerley, M. L., Mecham, R. L. y Strauss, J. P. (2008). Gender differences in leadership competencies, expatriate readiness, and performance. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 23(5), 300-316.
Engle, Sr, A. D., Dowling, P. J. y Festing, M. (2008). State of origin: research in global performance management, a proposed research domain and emerging implications. European Journal of International Management, 2(2), 153-169.
Firth, B. M., Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L. y Kim, K. (2014). Newcomers abroad: expatriate adaptation during early phases of international assignments. Academy of Management Journal, 57(1), 280-300.
Fischlmayr, I. C. (2002). Female self-perception as barrier to international careers? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13, 773-783.
Fischlmayr, I. C. y Kollinger, I. (2010). Work-life balance–a neglected issue among Austrian female expatriates. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(4), 455-487.
Fischlmayr, I. C. y Puchmüller, K. M. (2016). Married, mom and manager–how can this be combined with an international career? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(7), 744-765.
Fisher, K., Hutchings, K. y Pinto, L. H. F. (2015). Pioneers across war zones: The lived acculturation experiences of US female military expatriates. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49, 265-277.
Goodwin, S. A., Operario, D. y Fiske, S. T. (1998). Situational power and interpersonal dominance facilitate bias and inequality. Journal of Social Issues, 54(4), 677-698.
Guthrie, J. P., Ash, R. A. y Stevens, C. D. (2003). Are women «better» than men? Personality differences and expatriate selection. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18(3), 229-243.
Hambrick, D. C. y Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: the organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of management review, 9(2), 193-206.
Harris, H. (2001). Researching Discrimination in Selection for International Management Assignments: The Role of Repertory Grid Technique. Women in Management Review, 16(3), 118-125.
Harris, H. (2002). Think international manager, think male: why are women not selected for international management assignments? Thunderbird International Business Review, 44(2), 175-203.
Harris, H. y Brewster, C. (1999). The Coffee Machine System: How International Selection Really Works. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(3), 459-476.
Harvey, M., Moeller, M. y McPhail, R. (2017). Mentoring Female Global Managers: A Social Comparison Perspective. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 4(1), 21-41.
Hechanova, R., Beehr, T. A. y Christiansen, N. D. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of employees’ adjustment to overseas assignment: a meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology, 52(2), 213-236.
Hutchings, K., French, E. y Hatcher, T. (2008). Lament of the ignored expatiate: an examination of organisational and social network support for female expatriates in China. Equal Opportunities International, 27(4), 372-391.
Hutchings, K., Lirio, P. y Metcalfe, B. D. (2012). Gender, globalisation and development: a re-evaluation of the nature of women’s global work. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(9), 1.763-1.787.
Hutchings, K., Metcalfe, B. D. y Cooper, B. K. (2010). Exploring Arab Middle Eastern women’s perceptions of barriers to, and facilitators of, international management opportunities. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(1), 61-83.
Hutchings, K., Michailova, S. y Harrison, E. C. (2013). Neither ghettoed nor cosmopolitan. Management International Review, 53(2), 291-318.
Insch, G. S., McIntyre, N. y Napier, N. K. (2008). The expatriate glass ceiling: the second layer of glass. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 19-28.
Jaeger, T. F. (2008). Categorical data analysis: away from ANOVAs (transformation or not) and towards logit mixed models. Journal of memory and language, 59(4), 434-446.
Konopaske, R. y Werner, S. (2005). US managers' willingness to accept a global assignment: do expatriate benefits and assignment length make a difference? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(7), 1.159-1.175.
Kraimer, M., Bolino, M. y Mead, B. (2016). Themes in expatriate and repatriate research over four decades: what do we know and what do we still need to learn? Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3, 83-109.
Linehan, M. (2001). Networking for female managers' career development: empirical evidence. Journal of Management Development, 20(10), 823-829.
Linehan, M. (2002). Senior female international managers: empirical evidence from Western Europe. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(5), 802-814.
Linehan, M. y Scullion, H. (2001a). European female expatriate careers: critical success factors. Journal of European Industrial Training, 25(8), 392-418.
Linehan, M. y Scullion, H. (2001b). Selection, training, and development for female international executives. Career Development International, 6(6), 318-323.
Linehan, M. y Scullion, H. (2004). Towards an understanding of the female expatriate experience in Europe. Human Resource Management Review, 14, 433-448.
Linehan, M. y Scullion, H. (2008). The development of female global managers: the role of mentoring and networking. Journal of business ethics, 83(1), 29-40.
Linehan, M. y Walsh, J. S. (1999a). Recruiting and developing female managers for international assignments. Journal of Management Development, 18(6), 521-531.
Linehan, M. y Walsh, J. S. (1999b). Mentoring relationships and the female managerial career. Career Development International, 4(7), 348-352.
Mäkelä, L., Bergbom, B., Saarenpää, K. y Suutari, V. (2015). Work-family conflict faced by international business travellers: Do gender and parental status make a difference? Journal of Global Mobility, 3(2), 155-168.
Mathur-Helm, B. (2002). Expatriate women managers: at the crossroads of success, challenges and career goals. Women in Management Review, 17(1), 18-28.
Menzies, J. (2012). Shattering the glass border: the factors that are related to women participating in international assignments. International journal of business and globalisation, 8(3), 349-363.
Morecroft, J. D. (2015). Strategic modelling and business dynamics: a feedback systems approach. John Wiley & Sons.
Moscoso, S., García-Izquierdo, A. L. y Bastida, M. (2012). A mediation model of individual differences in attitudes toward affirmative actions for women. Psychological reports, 110(3), 764-780.
Napier, N. K. y Taylor, S. (2002). Experiences of Women Professionals Abroad: Comparisons Across Japan, China and Turkey. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(5), 837-851.
Newman, R., Chang, V., Walters, R. J. y Wills, G. B. (2016). Model and experimental development for Business Data Science. International Journal of Information Management, 36(4), 607-617.
Paik, Y. y Vance, C. M. (2002). Evidence of back-home selection bias against US female expatriates. Women in Management Review, 17(2), 68-79.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B. y Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual review of psychology, 63, 539-569.
Reuber, A. R. y Fischer, E. (1997). The influence of the management team’s international experience on the internationalization behaviors of SMEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(4), 807-825.
Rodgers, T. y Ghosh, D. (2001). Measuring the determinants of quality in UK higher education: a multinomial logit approach. Quality Assurance in Education, 9(3), 121-126.
Ryan, M. K. y Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16, 81-90.
Ryan, M. K., Haslam, S. A. y Postmes, T. (2007). Reactions to the glass cliff: Gender differences in the explanations for the precariousness of women’s leadership positions. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20, 182-197.
Salamin, X. y Davoine, E. (2015). International adjustment of female vs male business expatriates. A replication study in Switzerland. Journal of Global Mobility, 3(2), 183-212.
Salamin, X. y Hanappi, D. (2014). Women and international assignments. Journal of Global Mobility, 2(3), 343-374.
Selmer, J. y Lauring, J. (2011). Marital status and work outcomes of self-initiated expatriates: is there a moderating effect of gender? Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 18(2), 198-213.
Selmer, J. y Leung, A. S. (2002). Career management issues of female business expatriates. Career Development International, 7(6), 348-358.
Selmer, J. y Leung, A. S. (2003a). Are Corporate Career Development Activities Les Available to Female Than to Male Expatriates? Journal of Business Ethics, 43(1-2), 125-136.
Selmer, J. y Leung, A. S. (2003b). International adjustment of female vs male business expatriates. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(7), 1.117-1.131.
Shen, J. y Jiang, F. (2015). Factors influencing Chinese female expatriates' performance in international assignments. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(3), 299-315.
Shortland, S. (2009). Gender diversity in expatriation: evaluating theoretical perspectives. Gender in Management: an International Journal, 24(5), 365-386.
Shortland, S. (2014). Woman Expatriates: a Research History. En K. Hutchings y S. Michailova (Eds.), Research Handbook on Woman in International Management (pp. 18-46). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Shortland, S. (2016). The purpose of expatriation: why women undertake international assignments. Human Resource Management, 55(4), 655-678.
Shortland, S. (2018). Female expatriates' motivations and challenges: the case of oil and gas. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(1), 50-65.
Sinangil, H. y Ones, D. (2003). Gender Differences in Expatriate Job Performance. Applied Psychology, 52(3), 461-475.
Sterman, J. D. (2001). System dynamics modeling: tools for learning in a complex world. California management review, 43(4), 8-25.
Stroh, L. K., Varma, A. y Valy-Durbin, S. J. (2000). Why are women left at home: are they unwilling to go on international assignments? Journal of World Business, 35(3), 241-255.
Tharenou, P. (2008). Disruptive decisions to leave home: gender and family differences in expatriation choices. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(2), 183-200.
Tharenou, P. (2010). Women's self-initiated expatriation as a career option and its ethical issues. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(1), 73-88.
Tharenou, P. (2014). Self-initiated expatriation by women: does it help to overcome the glass ceiling? En K. Hutchings y S. Michailova (Eds.), Research Handbook on Women in International Management (pp. 304-331). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Tung, R. L. (1984). Strategic management of human resources in the multinational enterprise. Human Resource Management, 23(2), 129-143.
Tung, R. L. (2008). Do race and gender matter in international assignments to/from Asia pacific? An exploratory study of attitudes among Chinese. Human Resource Management, 47(1), 91-110.
Vance, C. M. y McNulty, Y. (2014). Why and how women and men acquire global career experience: a study of American expatriates in Europe. International Studies of Management & Organization, 44(2), 34-54.
Vance, C. M. y Paik, Y. (2001). Where do American women face their biggest obstacle to expatriate career success? Back in their own backyard. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 8(3/4), 98-116.
Vance, C. M., Paik, Y. y White, J. A. (2006). Tracking bias against the selection of female expatriates: implications and opportunities for business education. Thunderbird International Business Review, 48(6), 823-842.
Varma, A. y Russell, L. (2016). Women and expatriate assignments: exploring the role of perceived organizational support. Employee Relations, 38(2), 200-223.
Varma, A., Toh, S. M. y Budhwar, P. (2006). A new perspective on the female expatriate experience: the role of host country national categorization. Journal of World Business, 41(2), 112-120.
Velde van der, M. E. G., Bossink, C. J. H. y Jansen, P. G. W. (2005). Gender differences in the determinants of the willingness to accept an international assignment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 81-103.
